According to search-discovered classical Islamic scholarship, Quran 60:9 establishes a precise and conditional prohibition against forming alliances (`muwalat`) with a specific category of non-Muslims. Tafsir commentators like Ibn Kathir and Al-Tabari explain that this prohibition is not based on disbelief, but on active hostility. Allah forbids befriending only those who meet three conditions: they have fought against Muslims on account of their religion, driven them out of their homes, and supported others in their expulsion. This verse serves to clarify the preceding verse (60:8), making a critical distinction between peaceful non-Muslims, with whom kindness and justice are enjoined, and belligerent aggressors. Taking the latter group as allies is deemed a form of wrongdoing (`zulm`), as it constitutes a betrayal of the Muslim community and a form of support for oppression.